When Computers Were Human by David Alan Grier Page A

especially grateful for the careful reading and suggestions of Ted Porter. For their kindness, sharp eyes, and insightful suggestions, I absolve them of any responsibility for such errors as remain in the manuscript. I have also had guidance from a number of colleagues who have shared their thoughts on this project, including Horace Judson, Freeman Dyson, Susan Strasser, Anne Fitzpatrick, Bill Aspray, Martin Campbell-Kelly, Paul Ceruzzi, Jennifer Light, James Cortada, Tara Wallace, Ed McCord, Michael Moses, Steve Dick, Ian Bartky, Ruth Wallace, Chris Sterling, Ed Berkowitz, Howard Gillette, and Barney Mergan.

Appendix: Recurring Characters, Institutions, and Concepts
    T HIS BOOK contains a large number of characters, many of whom disappear after their initial introduction and return several chapters later in the narrative. This section is meant to be a guide to the most important recurring people, institutions, and concepts. It gives a brief description of key items; a more complete list of characters is found in the index.
    A BERDEEN P ROVING G ROUND
    U.S. Army testing site for artillery, opened in 1918 with Princeton mathematician Oswald Veblen on staff
    A BRAMOWITZ , M ILTON (1913–1958)
    Planning committee member of Mathematical Tables Project, editor of Handbook of Mathematical Functions
    A DMIRALTY C OMPUTING S ERVICE
    English computing organization of the Second World War led by John Todd
    A IKEN , H OWARD (1900–1973)
    Harvard graduate student and designer of MARK I mechanical computing device
    A IRY , G EORGE B IDDLE (1801–1892)
    English Astronomer Royal, reorganized Greenwich Observatory computers with principles of factory production
    A LEMBERT , J EAN L E R OND D ’ (1717–1783)
    French mathematician and critic of calculations for first return of Halley’s comet
    A PPLIED M ATHEMATICS P ANEL
    Division of Office of Scientific Research and Development concerned with mathematical research, led by Warren Weaver and headquartered in New York City
    A RCHIBALD , R AYMOND C LAIRE (1875–1955)
    Editor of the journal Mathematical Tables and Other Aids to Computation
    A TANASOFF , J OHN V INCENT (1903–1995)
    Iowa State College physics professor, designed small computer to solve simultaneous equations problems
    B ABBAGE , C HARLES (1791–1871)
    British mathematician and designer of computing machine called difference engine
    B ELL T ELEPHONE L ABORATORIES
    American industrial research laboratory founded in 1925, supported computing groups and developed early electromechanical computer
    B ENNETT , A. A. (1888–1971)
    Brown University mathematician, member of Aberdeen Proving Ground staff in First World War, chair of the Subcommittee on the Bibliography of Mathematical Tables and Other Aids to Computation
    B IOMETRICS L ABORATORY ; see G ALTON L ABORATORY
    B LANCH , G ERTRUDE (1896–1996)
    Mathematical leader of Mathematical Tables Project
    B RITISH A SSOCIATION FOR THE A DVANCEMENT OF S CIENCE , M ATHEMATICAL T ABLES C OMMITTEE
    Committee of scientists who computed tables of higher mathematical functions
    B RUNSVIGA
    Mechanical calculator that was a favorite of Karl Pearson and the British statistical community
    B UREAU DU C ADASTRE
    French survey organization, led by Gaspard de Prony, that computed decimal trigonometry tables during the French Revolution
    B URROUGHS , W ILLIAM S EWARD (1855–1898)
    Early successful American adding machine manufacturer; machines later adapted as difference engines
    B USH , V ANNEVAR (1890–1974)
    MIT engineer, directed American scientific effort during Second World War
    C AVE -B ROWNE -C AVE , F RANCES (1876–1965)
    Mathematics professor at Girton College, Cambridge, U.K., did calculations for Karl Pearson
    C LAIRAUT , A LEXIS -C LAUDE (1713–1765)
    French mathematician, computed perihelion of Halley’s comet at first return in 1758
    C OAST ( AND G EODETIC ) S URVEY
    First U.S. government scientific organization, maintained