The Conclave: A Sometimes Secret and Occasionally Bloody History of Papal Elections by Michael Walsh
Authors: Michael Walsh
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chose the name of a pope from the early Church – in his case the title of Victor II – to indicate that he, like them, was to restore the presumed purity of the primitive Christian community. He did not have long in which to achieve his aim: he died in July 1057.
64 The Conclave
He died only a few months after returning from Germany where, after the death of the Emperor Henry III, he had helped to ensure the succession as king of Henry’s son, Henry IV. The new king was a minor and his mother, as Regent, was too weak to inter- vene significantly at that moment in papal politics. The election of Pope Stephen IX (X) in August 1057 was therefore made without reference to the German court. It was almost certainly not a snub, but a desire by reformers among the cardinals to get on with the election before the Roman nobility could interfere. The reformers turned for advice to the powerful abbot of Monte Cassino. He was powerful not so much by virtue of his o ffi ce but because Abbot Frederic of Ardennes was the brother of Godfrey the Bearded, Duke of Lotharingia and Marquis of Tuscany. Frederic suggested several names, but in the election which followed he himself was the one chosen. He was consecrated the following day, opting for the name Stephen because the feast day of Pope St. Stephen I fell on the day of his election, and possibly also because, like his recent predecessors, he wished to be identified with the papacy of the early Church.
Stephen IX (X) died only eight months later – so far the last of his name, which ended the confusion over the enumeration of Stephens. When he became ill he was much exercised about the succession to the papacy, particularly because he was just about to leave Rome for Florence (indeed, he died there). He asked the clergy and people of Rome not to proceed to the election of a successor until his close adviser Hildebrand should return from the German court, whither Stephen had sent him.
But with the leader of the reform group among the cardinals out of the city, the Tusculani and their supporters saw a final chance to reassert their former influence. Going back on their oath to wait until Hildebrand returned to Rome, they put forward for the o ffi ce of pope John Mincius, Bishop of Velletri, a member of the Tusculani clan. It was an inspired choice; John Mincius was himself a reformer, and he had been one of those whom the late pope had
Attempting Reform 65
suggested as a suitable candidate before his own election. Mincius protested against the violation of the oath, but none too vigorous- ly. He was elected on 5 April 1058 and installed in the Lateran, though all the other cardinals, including Peter Damian, the Cardinal Bishop of Ostia, whose role it should have been to preside at the enthronement of the new Pope Benedict X, fled the city.
They gathered again in Siena and, under the guidance of Hildebrand, proceeded to a new election. They chose Gerard, Bishop of Florence, who had been born either in Lorraine or Burgundy and had impeccable reformer credentials. The troops of Duke Godfrey of Lorraine escorted the new pope, who took the title of Nicholas II. In January 1059 he held a synod at Sutri, before he reached Rome, and pronounced the banishment of Benedict – who promptly fled the city. Nicholas was installed in the Lateran on 24 January, and there the following April he held another synod. On 12 or 13 April the synod declared in a decree entitled In Nomine Domine (“In the name of the Lord”) that in the future the pope was to be elected by the cardinal bishops alone. The rest of the cardinals would then be asked to give their assent, and after that the clergy and laity of Rome. In normal circumstances, the decree went on, the pope should ordinarily be drawn from among the Roman clergy, but if necessary anyone might be chosen. Similarly, the election should be held in Rome, but in case of necessity could be held anywhere – which of course had just happened. Even if a
64 The Conclave
He died only a few months after returning from Germany where, after the death of the Emperor Henry III, he had helped to ensure the succession as king of Henry’s son, Henry IV. The new king was a minor and his mother, as Regent, was too weak to inter- vene significantly at that moment in papal politics. The election of Pope Stephen IX (X) in August 1057 was therefore made without reference to the German court. It was almost certainly not a snub, but a desire by reformers among the cardinals to get on with the election before the Roman nobility could interfere. The reformers turned for advice to the powerful abbot of Monte Cassino. He was powerful not so much by virtue of his o ffi ce but because Abbot Frederic of Ardennes was the brother of Godfrey the Bearded, Duke of Lotharingia and Marquis of Tuscany. Frederic suggested several names, but in the election which followed he himself was the one chosen. He was consecrated the following day, opting for the name Stephen because the feast day of Pope St. Stephen I fell on the day of his election, and possibly also because, like his recent predecessors, he wished to be identified with the papacy of the early Church.
Stephen IX (X) died only eight months later – so far the last of his name, which ended the confusion over the enumeration of Stephens. When he became ill he was much exercised about the succession to the papacy, particularly because he was just about to leave Rome for Florence (indeed, he died there). He asked the clergy and people of Rome not to proceed to the election of a successor until his close adviser Hildebrand should return from the German court, whither Stephen had sent him.
But with the leader of the reform group among the cardinals out of the city, the Tusculani and their supporters saw a final chance to reassert their former influence. Going back on their oath to wait until Hildebrand returned to Rome, they put forward for the o ffi ce of pope John Mincius, Bishop of Velletri, a member of the Tusculani clan. It was an inspired choice; John Mincius was himself a reformer, and he had been one of those whom the late pope had
Attempting Reform 65
suggested as a suitable candidate before his own election. Mincius protested against the violation of the oath, but none too vigorous- ly. He was elected on 5 April 1058 and installed in the Lateran, though all the other cardinals, including Peter Damian, the Cardinal Bishop of Ostia, whose role it should have been to preside at the enthronement of the new Pope Benedict X, fled the city.
They gathered again in Siena and, under the guidance of Hildebrand, proceeded to a new election. They chose Gerard, Bishop of Florence, who had been born either in Lorraine or Burgundy and had impeccable reformer credentials. The troops of Duke Godfrey of Lorraine escorted the new pope, who took the title of Nicholas II. In January 1059 he held a synod at Sutri, before he reached Rome, and pronounced the banishment of Benedict – who promptly fled the city. Nicholas was installed in the Lateran on 24 January, and there the following April he held another synod. On 12 or 13 April the synod declared in a decree entitled In Nomine Domine (“In the name of the Lord”) that in the future the pope was to be elected by the cardinal bishops alone. The rest of the cardinals would then be asked to give their assent, and after that the clergy and laity of Rome. In normal circumstances, the decree went on, the pope should ordinarily be drawn from among the Roman clergy, but if necessary anyone might be chosen. Similarly, the election should be held in Rome, but in case of necessity could be held anywhere – which of course had just happened. Even if a
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