fortunes in the Roman empire. He also came from liberal stock: the emperors of the 1st and 2nd centuries were more sober, munificent and inclined toward good deeds than the flamboyant urban emperors of the previous, Julio-Claudian dynasty founded by Augustus.
Marcus was handpicked for great things. In AD 138 the emperor Hadrian had arranged for Marcus to be adopted by his appointedheir, Antoninus, which marked out the seventeen-year-old as a future joint emperor, along with another young man, who would become the emperor Lucius Verus.
Marcus received his education in Greek and Latin from the best tutors, including Herodes Atticus and Fronto, one of the principal popular literary figures of the day. But practice in rhetoric and linguistic exercises did not fully satisfy such a bright young man, and he keenly embraced the
Discourses
of Epictetus. Epictetus was a former slave who had become an important moral philosopher of the Stoic school, which taught that it was through fortitude and self-control that one could attain spiritual well-being and a clear and unbiased outlook on life. Philosophy in general, and Stoicism in particular, would be the intellectual touchstones of Marcusâ life.
When his adoptive father died in AD 161, Marcus was already prepared to take over the imperial duties. But in accordance with his sense of honor and political intelligence, he insisted that Lucius Verus be made joint emperor with him. Although Marcus could easily have eliminated his rival, he realized that with such a diverse empire to govern it made sense to have a partner with the political authority to rule when required but without the seniority to be a threat to stable government. It was Marcus who carried out the serious work of government.
As emperor, Marcus continued the benign policies of his predecessors. He made various legal reforms and provided relief to the less favored in societyâslaves, widows and minors all felt the benefits of his rule. Although there was some concern over the gap between the legal rights and privileges enjoyed by
honestiores
and those enjoyed by
humiliores
(the better-off and worse-off in society), Marcus was generally committed to building a fairer, more prosperous empire for his subjects.
One thing that Marcus could not control was the caprice of fate in sending disease and war. While fighting the Parthiansbetween 162 and 166, many soldiers contracted the plague, which spread throughout the empire. From 168 until around 172, Marcus (with Verus until his death in 169) was preoccupied with subduing the German tribes along the Danube, who were intent on marauding into the Roman Empire.
In spite of such engrossing problems, Marcus Aurelius remained a keen scholar of Stoicism, and in the last ten years of his life, in breaks between his campaigning and administrative duties, he wrote his
Meditations
. Written in Greek and randomly arranged just as they came to him, these are an eclectic selection of diary entries, fragments and epigrams in which he addresses the challenges of life at war, the fear of death, and the cares and injustices of everyday life.
The general sentiment of the
Meditations
is that overreaction and lingering bitterness are the most damaging responses to lifeâs iniquities. âIf you are pained by any external thing, it is not this that disturbs you, but your own judgment of it,â he writes. âAnd it is in your power to wipe out this judgment now.â Another typical injunction reads: âA cucumber is bitter; throw it away. There are briars in the road; turn aside from them. This is enough. Do not add âAnd why were such things made in the world?ââ
As the
Meditations
were written against the backdrop of war, mortality naturally features prominently in them. Marcusâ position is clear: âDo not act as if you were going to live ten thousand years. Death hangs over you. While you live, while it is in your power, be good.â
It is
Marcus was handpicked for great things. In AD 138 the emperor Hadrian had arranged for Marcus to be adopted by his appointedheir, Antoninus, which marked out the seventeen-year-old as a future joint emperor, along with another young man, who would become the emperor Lucius Verus.
Marcus received his education in Greek and Latin from the best tutors, including Herodes Atticus and Fronto, one of the principal popular literary figures of the day. But practice in rhetoric and linguistic exercises did not fully satisfy such a bright young man, and he keenly embraced the
Discourses
of Epictetus. Epictetus was a former slave who had become an important moral philosopher of the Stoic school, which taught that it was through fortitude and self-control that one could attain spiritual well-being and a clear and unbiased outlook on life. Philosophy in general, and Stoicism in particular, would be the intellectual touchstones of Marcusâ life.
When his adoptive father died in AD 161, Marcus was already prepared to take over the imperial duties. But in accordance with his sense of honor and political intelligence, he insisted that Lucius Verus be made joint emperor with him. Although Marcus could easily have eliminated his rival, he realized that with such a diverse empire to govern it made sense to have a partner with the political authority to rule when required but without the seniority to be a threat to stable government. It was Marcus who carried out the serious work of government.
As emperor, Marcus continued the benign policies of his predecessors. He made various legal reforms and provided relief to the less favored in societyâslaves, widows and minors all felt the benefits of his rule. Although there was some concern over the gap between the legal rights and privileges enjoyed by
honestiores
and those enjoyed by
humiliores
(the better-off and worse-off in society), Marcus was generally committed to building a fairer, more prosperous empire for his subjects.
One thing that Marcus could not control was the caprice of fate in sending disease and war. While fighting the Parthiansbetween 162 and 166, many soldiers contracted the plague, which spread throughout the empire. From 168 until around 172, Marcus (with Verus until his death in 169) was preoccupied with subduing the German tribes along the Danube, who were intent on marauding into the Roman Empire.
In spite of such engrossing problems, Marcus Aurelius remained a keen scholar of Stoicism, and in the last ten years of his life, in breaks between his campaigning and administrative duties, he wrote his
Meditations
. Written in Greek and randomly arranged just as they came to him, these are an eclectic selection of diary entries, fragments and epigrams in which he addresses the challenges of life at war, the fear of death, and the cares and injustices of everyday life.
The general sentiment of the
Meditations
is that overreaction and lingering bitterness are the most damaging responses to lifeâs iniquities. âIf you are pained by any external thing, it is not this that disturbs you, but your own judgment of it,â he writes. âAnd it is in your power to wipe out this judgment now.â Another typical injunction reads: âA cucumber is bitter; throw it away. There are briars in the road; turn aside from them. This is enough. Do not add âAnd why were such things made in the world?ââ
As the
Meditations
were written against the backdrop of war, mortality naturally features prominently in them. Marcusâ position is clear: âDo not act as if you were going to live ten thousand years. Death hangs over you. While you live, while it is in your power, be good.â
It is
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