“super-apostles,” but he knows that to boast of such things is to be a fool. To regain the Corinthians’ support, Paul brags of his own strengths even as he ironically rejects the value of that bragging. Weakness, not extravagant power, Paul says, authenticates true ministry, and for this reason he allowed himself to boast only of his afflictions.
READING GUIDE
Despite these varying topics and shifting rhetorical styles, the letter presents certain recurring motifs. The relationship between affliction and consolation, raised in 1.3–11, is the backbone of the arguments in 4.7–10; 4.16–5.10; and 12.7–10. The twin themes of boasting and confidence intimated in 1.12–14 feature prominently in 3.4–18; 8.1–7,24; 9.1–5; and all of 10–13. The paradox of power in weakness informs the whole letter. Even if 2 Corinthians is a composite, the different letters were composed within a brief period to address specific controversial issues.
The second letter to the Corinthians offers no extended reflection on any specific idea taken from Judaism, and in it Paul evidences no distinctive knowledge of Jewish thought or practice. Nevertheless, alongside his dependence on the Septuagint, which he constantly quotes and interprets, Paul reflects his Jewish intellectual and religious milieu. His exegetical technique resembles the style of rabbinic midrash that begins to emerge shortly after his day. His declarations regarding the nature of God reflect common Jewish liturgical themes, and his depiction of his personal heavenly journey (12.2–11) evidences a type of heavenly ascent familiar from Jewish writings of this same period. Even the places in which Paul differs from Jewish thinking—his negative attitude toward the law; his distinctive use of the concept of Satan (11.14)—suggest that he consistently thinks within a Jewish framework. It is one more irony of this letter that in order to deny the validity of the “old” covenant of the flesh that God made with the Jews, Paul depends for proof on those biblical writings that embody that covenant, through which he loudly and proudly proclaims his own Jewish heritage.
Alan J. Avery-Peck
THE LETTER OF PAUL TO THE GALATIANS
NAME, DATE, AND AUTHORSHIP
The Roman province of Galatia in central Asia Minor (modern Turkey) extended from the Black Sea in the north to the Mediterranean in the south. There is much scholarly debate about the location of Paul’s “churches of Galatia” (1.2), whether in the north or the south and whether this letter dates from the late 40s or mid 50s CE. Paul’s own location when writing this letter is not known. This letter shares language and themes with Romans and Corinthians, but the relative sequence of these letters is uncertain.
STRUCTURE
Following an autobiographical defense of his views, Paul forthrightly states his thesis: “a person is justified not by works of law but through faith in Jesus Christ” (2.16; cf. 2.21; 3.2; 5.2). To clarify this opposition between works and faith, Paul then appeals to other oppositions: flesh vs. spirit (3.3; 4.29; 5.16–25; 6.8), flesh vs. promise (4.23), slave vs. free (4.23,30), present Jerusalem vs. heavenly Jerusalem (4.26). Paul’s point is that faith does not supplement Torah piety but replaces it (5.2).
INTERPRETATION
Paul’s negative assessment of the Torah and those who follow it is striking: he insists that the Torah does not come from God (3.19–20); no longer has a salvific role, and perhaps never did (3.21–22); and its observance is akin to the worship of the Greek gods (4.9–10). He furthermore claims that the Jewish people are neither the true seed of Abraham (3.16) nor the Israel of God (6.16). In perhaps the letter’s most famous verse, Paul writes that distinctions between Jew and Greek are effaced because all are one in Christ (3.28).
In Romans, Paul addresses these same issues, but his positions there are far more nuanced. Competition prompted this extreme
READING GUIDE
Despite these varying topics and shifting rhetorical styles, the letter presents certain recurring motifs. The relationship between affliction and consolation, raised in 1.3–11, is the backbone of the arguments in 4.7–10; 4.16–5.10; and 12.7–10. The twin themes of boasting and confidence intimated in 1.12–14 feature prominently in 3.4–18; 8.1–7,24; 9.1–5; and all of 10–13. The paradox of power in weakness informs the whole letter. Even if 2 Corinthians is a composite, the different letters were composed within a brief period to address specific controversial issues.
The second letter to the Corinthians offers no extended reflection on any specific idea taken from Judaism, and in it Paul evidences no distinctive knowledge of Jewish thought or practice. Nevertheless, alongside his dependence on the Septuagint, which he constantly quotes and interprets, Paul reflects his Jewish intellectual and religious milieu. His exegetical technique resembles the style of rabbinic midrash that begins to emerge shortly after his day. His declarations regarding the nature of God reflect common Jewish liturgical themes, and his depiction of his personal heavenly journey (12.2–11) evidences a type of heavenly ascent familiar from Jewish writings of this same period. Even the places in which Paul differs from Jewish thinking—his negative attitude toward the law; his distinctive use of the concept of Satan (11.14)—suggest that he consistently thinks within a Jewish framework. It is one more irony of this letter that in order to deny the validity of the “old” covenant of the flesh that God made with the Jews, Paul depends for proof on those biblical writings that embody that covenant, through which he loudly and proudly proclaims his own Jewish heritage.
Alan J. Avery-Peck
THE LETTER OF PAUL TO THE GALATIANS
NAME, DATE, AND AUTHORSHIP
The Roman province of Galatia in central Asia Minor (modern Turkey) extended from the Black Sea in the north to the Mediterranean in the south. There is much scholarly debate about the location of Paul’s “churches of Galatia” (1.2), whether in the north or the south and whether this letter dates from the late 40s or mid 50s CE. Paul’s own location when writing this letter is not known. This letter shares language and themes with Romans and Corinthians, but the relative sequence of these letters is uncertain.
STRUCTURE
Following an autobiographical defense of his views, Paul forthrightly states his thesis: “a person is justified not by works of law but through faith in Jesus Christ” (2.16; cf. 2.21; 3.2; 5.2). To clarify this opposition between works and faith, Paul then appeals to other oppositions: flesh vs. spirit (3.3; 4.29; 5.16–25; 6.8), flesh vs. promise (4.23), slave vs. free (4.23,30), present Jerusalem vs. heavenly Jerusalem (4.26). Paul’s point is that faith does not supplement Torah piety but replaces it (5.2).
INTERPRETATION
Paul’s negative assessment of the Torah and those who follow it is striking: he insists that the Torah does not come from God (3.19–20); no longer has a salvific role, and perhaps never did (3.21–22); and its observance is akin to the worship of the Greek gods (4.9–10). He furthermore claims that the Jewish people are neither the true seed of Abraham (3.16) nor the Israel of God (6.16). In perhaps the letter’s most famous verse, Paul writes that distinctions between Jew and Greek are effaced because all are one in Christ (3.28).
In Romans, Paul addresses these same issues, but his positions there are far more nuanced. Competition prompted this extreme
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