light and radiates over 360 degrees and out to the line of sight from the source; thus, the higher the altitude of the burst the wider the area covered, until the point is reached where an exo-atmospheric burst would be intended primarily as an anti-electronic-systems weapon. An explosion at an altitude of 80 km would cover a circular area of 966 km radius, while an explosion at a height of 320 km would cover the whole of the contiguous United States and most of Canada. fn8 In a similar manner to lightning, EMP tends to home in on and then travel along conductors such as overhead or buried communications-cable runs, power cables, railway tracks and aircraft fuselages, and is particularly effective against transistorized equipment.
In aircraft, for example, EMP can cause computer malfunctions, inject energy into the aircraft wiring looms (resulting in unwanted signals to the equipment), and cause power surges which can result in system or component burn-out. This problem can be alleviated by shielding and filtering.
On the ground, protection against EMP is provided by careful planning of systems and good detailed design of equipments, including the use of efficient grounding (earth) and appropriate components. The EMP threat was taken very seriously in the West, particularly in the latter half of the Cold War, and vast sums of money were spent in developing and installing ‘nuclear hardening’ and in testing the results. Protection was also necessary against the EMP effects of weapons released by one’s own side; this might have included switching equipments off before an explosion.
Transient Radiation Effects on Electronics (TREE)
Although TREE occurs at the same time as EMP and has a similar source, it is a different phenomenon, caused by the initial nuclear radiation acting on electronic components. With high-yield nuclear weapons the range of TREE is probably less than that of damage caused by heat or blast, but it is of considerably greater significance in low-yield weapons, particularly those with enhanced-radiation warheads. Although the actual phenomenon is of very brief duration (typically a fraction of a second) the effect on electronic equipment may be long-lasting, if components are destroyed. Again, protection is achieved by good design and the use of filters.
NUCLEAR ATTACKS ON CENTRES OF POPULATION
A detailed assessment of the effects of nuclear weapons in a particular situation needs to take account of a wide variety of variable factors. In considering urban areas, for example, these include the location, density and distribution of the population in peacetime, as well as ambient conditions such as wind (which dictates the direction of the fallout plume), rain and temperature, all of which will affect the velocity and deceleration of the blast wave. The time of day is also relevant, not only because it will affect the ambient conditions, but also because the population distribution may be different between daytime and night-time, while the blinding effect of the light flash will be much more serious in the hours of darkness. Terrain also has an effect: for example, the blast wave will behave differently in hilly country compared to a plain.
Further differences arise according to whether the population has been warned of an impending attack, and, if so, whether it has been told to stay put (as in the UK), to disperse to the countryside (as in the USA) or to go to shelters (as in Sweden and Switzerland). The outcome will be further affected according to whether, having received the relevant instructions, the population has actually obeyed them. The availability of protective clothing – especially respirators – will also affect the outcome, as will the post-strike availability of the essentials of life such as food, water and fuel. House construction methods also have to be taken into account, since these vary not only between countries, but also between regions within a country and between areas in a
In aircraft, for example, EMP can cause computer malfunctions, inject energy into the aircraft wiring looms (resulting in unwanted signals to the equipment), and cause power surges which can result in system or component burn-out. This problem can be alleviated by shielding and filtering.
On the ground, protection against EMP is provided by careful planning of systems and good detailed design of equipments, including the use of efficient grounding (earth) and appropriate components. The EMP threat was taken very seriously in the West, particularly in the latter half of the Cold War, and vast sums of money were spent in developing and installing ‘nuclear hardening’ and in testing the results. Protection was also necessary against the EMP effects of weapons released by one’s own side; this might have included switching equipments off before an explosion.
Transient Radiation Effects on Electronics (TREE)
Although TREE occurs at the same time as EMP and has a similar source, it is a different phenomenon, caused by the initial nuclear radiation acting on electronic components. With high-yield nuclear weapons the range of TREE is probably less than that of damage caused by heat or blast, but it is of considerably greater significance in low-yield weapons, particularly those with enhanced-radiation warheads. Although the actual phenomenon is of very brief duration (typically a fraction of a second) the effect on electronic equipment may be long-lasting, if components are destroyed. Again, protection is achieved by good design and the use of filters.
NUCLEAR ATTACKS ON CENTRES OF POPULATION
A detailed assessment of the effects of nuclear weapons in a particular situation needs to take account of a wide variety of variable factors. In considering urban areas, for example, these include the location, density and distribution of the population in peacetime, as well as ambient conditions such as wind (which dictates the direction of the fallout plume), rain and temperature, all of which will affect the velocity and deceleration of the blast wave. The time of day is also relevant, not only because it will affect the ambient conditions, but also because the population distribution may be different between daytime and night-time, while the blinding effect of the light flash will be much more serious in the hours of darkness. Terrain also has an effect: for example, the blast wave will behave differently in hilly country compared to a plain.
Further differences arise according to whether the population has been warned of an impending attack, and, if so, whether it has been told to stay put (as in the UK), to disperse to the countryside (as in the USA) or to go to shelters (as in Sweden and Switzerland). The outcome will be further affected according to whether, having received the relevant instructions, the population has actually obeyed them. The availability of protective clothing – especially respirators – will also affect the outcome, as will the post-strike availability of the essentials of life such as food, water and fuel. House construction methods also have to be taken into account, since these vary not only between countries, but also between regions within a country and between areas in a
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