Latin that was as elegant, fluent, and idiomatic as the original. ∗
The Italian humanists—who aspired above all to write perfect if rather sterile Ciceronian Latin—took up the new technique with gusto. It was perfectly in keeping with their literary values, and a logical outgrowth of the humanisticprogram. Indeed, Salutati probably had similar ideas already, since Cicero himself had also condemned word-for-word translations for their stiffness. Chryoloras’ students soon began undertaking humanistic translations on a grand scale, and for the first time accurate and graceful Latin versions of important Greek works started appearing rapidly in the West.
The famed Leonardo Bruni, the most prolific translator among Chrysoloras’ students, exemplified the new approach. Commenting on his own criteria in translating Plato, Bruni wrote about the Greek author as if he were a good friend who was still alive: “I translate him in a way that I understand will give him most pleasure…. [B]eing the most elegant of writers in the Greek, he will not wish to appear lacking in taste in Latin.” Bruni, incidentally, was the first to use the word
translation (translatio,
literally “carrying across”) in this way, for the rendering of one language into another.
As Salutati had so clearly intuited, Chrysoloras in Florence at the turn of the quattrocento was truly the right man in the right place at the right time—in other words, the perfect teacher for the daunting educational task at hand. This is why Renaissance scholars agree that, despite Salutati's many accomplishments, his greatest contribution to humanism lay simply in bringing Chrysoloras to Florence.
Chrysoloras’ Students in Florence
Chrysoloras stayed in Florence for only three years, leaving in March 1400. In that short space of time, he ensured that the study of ancient Greek put down permanent roots in the West. His Florentine students represent the first true generation of classical Greek scholars in Western Europe:
Leonardo Bruni (1370-1444).
Born in the town of Arezzo (and therefore sometimes known as Aretino), Bruni was the most renowned Florentine humanist of the first half of the quattrocento. Interested mainly in history and political theory, he was the leading exponent of civic humanism. ∗ Bruni's many polished translations include Aristotle's
Politics
and
Ethics,
several
Lives
of illustrious Greeks and Romans by the ancient biographer Plutarch (a favorite of the early humanists, Plutarch would later be a rich source for Shakespeare), and rhetorical works by the Greek orators Demosthenes and Aeschines. Salutati had compared Florence with republican Rome; Bruni extended the comparison to include Athens as well. In 1401 Bruni published his famous encomium
In Praise of the City of Florence,
basing it on Greek models such as Aelius Aristides’ encomium of Athens. Later he wrote the pioneer work of Renaissance historiography,
The History of the Florentine People,
in which he revived the critical, secularizing methods of the ancient historians. Like many of his friends, Bruni spent time working at the Vatican, which also became a major center of humanist learning. His humanist skills brought him wealth and celebrity, and like his teacher Salutati he served as Florentine chancellor (from 1427 until his death).
Poggio Bracciolini (1380-1459).
Poggio was a teenager when Chrysoloras arrived in Florence, and he may have been too young to be officially included among Chrysoloras’ students. He never mastered Greek andwas probably more of a young hanger-on than a full-fledged student when Chrysoloras was teaching. Perhaps because of this situation, Poggio hero-worshipped Chrysoloras more than the other Florentines. However, at times he later appears mildly dismissive of Greek learning, which may reveal a touch of sour grapes after his youthful exclusion by the others. Regardless, he was certainly well accepted in Salutati's circle by 1400, winning his spurs as a
The Italian humanists—who aspired above all to write perfect if rather sterile Ciceronian Latin—took up the new technique with gusto. It was perfectly in keeping with their literary values, and a logical outgrowth of the humanisticprogram. Indeed, Salutati probably had similar ideas already, since Cicero himself had also condemned word-for-word translations for their stiffness. Chryoloras’ students soon began undertaking humanistic translations on a grand scale, and for the first time accurate and graceful Latin versions of important Greek works started appearing rapidly in the West.
The famed Leonardo Bruni, the most prolific translator among Chrysoloras’ students, exemplified the new approach. Commenting on his own criteria in translating Plato, Bruni wrote about the Greek author as if he were a good friend who was still alive: “I translate him in a way that I understand will give him most pleasure…. [B]eing the most elegant of writers in the Greek, he will not wish to appear lacking in taste in Latin.” Bruni, incidentally, was the first to use the word
translation (translatio,
literally “carrying across”) in this way, for the rendering of one language into another.
As Salutati had so clearly intuited, Chrysoloras in Florence at the turn of the quattrocento was truly the right man in the right place at the right time—in other words, the perfect teacher for the daunting educational task at hand. This is why Renaissance scholars agree that, despite Salutati's many accomplishments, his greatest contribution to humanism lay simply in bringing Chrysoloras to Florence.
Chrysoloras’ Students in Florence
Chrysoloras stayed in Florence for only three years, leaving in March 1400. In that short space of time, he ensured that the study of ancient Greek put down permanent roots in the West. His Florentine students represent the first true generation of classical Greek scholars in Western Europe:
Leonardo Bruni (1370-1444).
Born in the town of Arezzo (and therefore sometimes known as Aretino), Bruni was the most renowned Florentine humanist of the first half of the quattrocento. Interested mainly in history and political theory, he was the leading exponent of civic humanism. ∗ Bruni's many polished translations include Aristotle's
Politics
and
Ethics,
several
Lives
of illustrious Greeks and Romans by the ancient biographer Plutarch (a favorite of the early humanists, Plutarch would later be a rich source for Shakespeare), and rhetorical works by the Greek orators Demosthenes and Aeschines. Salutati had compared Florence with republican Rome; Bruni extended the comparison to include Athens as well. In 1401 Bruni published his famous encomium
In Praise of the City of Florence,
basing it on Greek models such as Aelius Aristides’ encomium of Athens. Later he wrote the pioneer work of Renaissance historiography,
The History of the Florentine People,
in which he revived the critical, secularizing methods of the ancient historians. Like many of his friends, Bruni spent time working at the Vatican, which also became a major center of humanist learning. His humanist skills brought him wealth and celebrity, and like his teacher Salutati he served as Florentine chancellor (from 1427 until his death).
Poggio Bracciolini (1380-1459).
Poggio was a teenager when Chrysoloras arrived in Florence, and he may have been too young to be officially included among Chrysoloras’ students. He never mastered Greek andwas probably more of a young hanger-on than a full-fledged student when Chrysoloras was teaching. Perhaps because of this situation, Poggio hero-worshipped Chrysoloras more than the other Florentines. However, at times he later appears mildly dismissive of Greek learning, which may reveal a touch of sour grapes after his youthful exclusion by the others. Regardless, he was certainly well accepted in Salutati's circle by 1400, winning his spurs as a
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