Defending Constantine: The Twilight of an Empire and the Dawn of Christendom by Peter J. Leithart Page A

schism. Records list an "Arius" as a supporter of Melitius, and Frend (Rise of Christianity, p. 493) believes it is the same Arius who later emerged in conflict with Alexander. That implies that Arius was a very slick operator, changing from loyalty to Melitus to Peter's successor, and recent scholars have doubted that the two are the same man (Williams, Arius, p. 40; Hanson, Search for the Christian Doctrine, p. 5).

    'All quoted in Hanson, Search for the Christian Doctrine, pp. 6-7.

    4Ayres, Nicaea, emphasizes the central importance of theories of "begetting" in the debate over Arius's views.

    5Athanasius On the Synods 16.

    'Barnes, Constantine and Eusebius, pp. 203-4.

    Trend, Rise of Christianity, p. 497.

    BEusebius Life 2.64-72.

    'Charles Matson Odahl (Constantine and the Christian Empire [London: Routledge, 2004], p. 192) argues that Constantine did recognize the importance of the theological issues but aimed first and foremost at Concordia among the bishops.

    10Socrates Ecclesiastical History 1.9.

    "Ibid.

    12Odahl, Constantine and the Christian Empire, p. 197; Timothy D. Barnes, "Constantine, Athanasius and the Christian Church," in Constantine: History, Historiography andLegend, ed. Samuel Lieu and Dominic Montserrat (London: Routledge, 1998); Ayres, Nicaea, p. 89; most thoroughly, Hanson, Search for the Christian Doctrine, pp. 154-155. A. H. M. Jones (Constantine and the Conversion ofEurope [Toronto: University of Toronto Press, 1978], p. 132) claims that Constantine chaired the meeting and that it was organized like a meeting of the Senate or town council, in which the chair of the meeting fully participated in the deliberations. H. A. Drake (Constantine and the Bishops: The Politics of Intolerance [Baltimore: Johns Hopkins University Press, 2000]) also notes the parallels with the Senate, as does Francis Dvornik, "Emperors, Popes and General Councils," Dumbarton Oaks Papers 6 (1951), but the latter makes the crucial point that the emperor had no vote in the Senate but was an admittedly powerful moderator of senatorial deliberations.

    "Hanson, Search for the Christian Doctrine, pp. 157-63.

    "Barnes, "Constantine, Athanasius," pp. 10-11.

    "Quoted by Frend, Rise of Christianity, p. 498.

    16On Constantine's role at the council, see Ayres, Nicaea, pp. 89-90; Hanson, Search for the Christian Doctrine, p. 171, both of whom conclude that we have no way of knowing what exactly he did. Jones, Constantine and the Conversion ofEurope, pp. 133-34.

    17Athanasius does not say that Constantine introduced this term.

    18Odahl (Constantine and the Christian Empire, p. 197) attributes the introduction of the term to Lactantius and Ossius.

    19Barnes, Constantine and Eusebius, pp. 215-17; Williams, Arius, p. 71; Hanson, Search for the Christian Doctrine, p. 173; Jones, Constantine and the Conversion ofEurope, pp. 138, 146.

    20Hanson, Search for the Christian Doctrine, p. 172.

    "Barnes, Constantine and Eusebius, p. 229; Jones, Constantine and the Conversion of Europe, pp. 148-49.

    22Athanasius Defense 40. Translation from P. R. Coleman-Norton, Roman State and Christian Church (London: SPCK, 1966).

    24Hanson, Search for the Christian Doctrine, pp. 208-38; Williams, Arius, p. 80; Ayres, Nicaea, pp. 101-2. Behind the falls of these Nicene supporters, Chadwick (Early Church, pp. 134-35) sees the hand of Eusebius of Nicomedia.

    "Jones, Constantine and the Conversion ofEurope, pp. 150-51.

    23Ibid.

    26Barnes, Athanasius and Constantius, pp. 10-14, on the background of Athanasius as a lowerclass biblicist. See also Hanson, Searchforthe Christian Doctrine, pp. 239-73; Jones, Constantine and the Conversion ofEurope, p. 153.

    27Barnes, Athanasius and Constantius, p. 21; Potter, Roman Empire at Bay, p. 422; Jones, Constantine and the Conversion ofEurope, pp. 155-56.

    28Jones, Constantine and the Conversion ofEurope, pp. 156-57.

    291bid., pp. 160-63. Athanasius never completely denied the charges of breaking a chalice or of