had taken hundreds of its towns and castles, gave little heed to military and government affairs. Having ignored the advice given him some time earlier by S ŏ ngch’ung, a high-level official, and now repeated by H ŭ ngsu, another loyal official, the Paekche king belatedly sent General Kyebaek to halt the Silla advance. Kyebaek organized 5,000 soldiers into a band, all of whom were determined to die. At Hwangsan (present-day Y ŏ nsan, South Ch’ungch’ ŏ ng province), he won the battle but could not win the war, as he was killed in the battle. Now the allied forces of Silla and Tangrushed to the Paekche capital, Sabi. Soon the capital fell. With the surrender of King Ŭ ija, who had taken refuge at Ungjin, the kingdom of Paekche, which had produced a brilliant civilization and transmitted its high culture to Japan, finally perished in 660. The king and crown prince and more than 12,000 others were taken prisoner and sent to Tang.
Tang established five occupied regions in the former Paekche territory and began to administer it directly. Meanwhile, the remaining Paekche forces gathered volunteers at Churyu-s ŏ ng (present-day Hansan, South Ch’ungch’ ŏ ng province) and Imjon-s ŏ ng (present-day Taeh ŭ ng, South Ch’ungch’ ŏ ng province). Their leaders Poksin, a member of the royal family, and Toch’im, a Buddhist monk, invited Prince Puy ŏ P’ung, who was visiting Japan, to become their king while they sought military aid from Japan. The Wae Japanese, who had maintained close ties with Paekche, tried their best to save the Korean kingdom by dispatching an army, some 30,000 strong, but at the estuary of the Paekch’ ŏ n (present-day K ŭ m River), their naval forces were defeated by the joint Silla-Tang navy.
The effort to restore Paekche continued for four years. Paekche forces at one point laid siege to Sabi and Ungjin, and occupied other strongholds. They also harassed the Tang garrisons, and on a number of occasions defeated the Tang and Silla armies dispatched against them. But the restoration movement collapsed as a result of internal schism. Poksin, who distinguished himself on the field of battle and became increasingly arrogant, killed Toch’im, and was in turn killed by Puy ŏ P’ung, who escaped to Kogury ŏ . Seizing upon this opportunity, the allied forces of Silla and Tang attacked and captured the main restorationist stronghold of Churyu-s ŏ ng in 663. Two years later, in 665, the final redoubt of the restoration forces, Imjon-s ŏ ng, fell, putting an end to the struggle to restore Paekche.
The Downfall of Kogury ŏ
Having destroyed Paekche in 660, the victorious allies of Tang and Silla continued their assault on Kogury ŏ for the next eight years. In 661 Tang armies, with the aid of Silla troops, encircled the Kogury ŏ capital of Pyongyang for several months. But they were defeated by Y ŏ n Kae-somun and had to withdraw in 662. Although Kogury ŏ survived this attack, its power to resist had been seriously weakened. The exhaustion caused by long years of continuous warfare with China together with the disaffection engendered by Y ŏ n Kae-somun’s dictatorial rule prompted Kogyry ŏ ’s ultimate downfall.
After the death of strongman Y ŏ n Kae-somun in 666, a power struggle erupted among his three sons and younger brother. The eldest son, Nam-saeng, who succeeded his father as mangriji, was driven out by his two younger brothers, Nam-g ŏ n and Nam-san. He fled to the old capital of Kungnae-s ŏ ng and voluntarily surrendered to Tang. Y ŏ n Kae-somun’s younger brother, Y ŏ n Ch ŏ ng-t’o, surrendered to Silla, and was joined by the people of 12 castles in the southern region. Taking advantage of this opportunity, Tang mounted a fresh invasion of Kogury ŏ in 667 that was coordinated with a Silla offensive. This time the Tang army, commanded by Li Ji, captured most of the fortresses in Manchuria and encircled Pyongyang. After holding out for another year, the weary kingdom
Tang established five occupied regions in the former Paekche territory and began to administer it directly. Meanwhile, the remaining Paekche forces gathered volunteers at Churyu-s ŏ ng (present-day Hansan, South Ch’ungch’ ŏ ng province) and Imjon-s ŏ ng (present-day Taeh ŭ ng, South Ch’ungch’ ŏ ng province). Their leaders Poksin, a member of the royal family, and Toch’im, a Buddhist monk, invited Prince Puy ŏ P’ung, who was visiting Japan, to become their king while they sought military aid from Japan. The Wae Japanese, who had maintained close ties with Paekche, tried their best to save the Korean kingdom by dispatching an army, some 30,000 strong, but at the estuary of the Paekch’ ŏ n (present-day K ŭ m River), their naval forces were defeated by the joint Silla-Tang navy.
The effort to restore Paekche continued for four years. Paekche forces at one point laid siege to Sabi and Ungjin, and occupied other strongholds. They also harassed the Tang garrisons, and on a number of occasions defeated the Tang and Silla armies dispatched against them. But the restoration movement collapsed as a result of internal schism. Poksin, who distinguished himself on the field of battle and became increasingly arrogant, killed Toch’im, and was in turn killed by Puy ŏ P’ung, who escaped to Kogury ŏ . Seizing upon this opportunity, the allied forces of Silla and Tang attacked and captured the main restorationist stronghold of Churyu-s ŏ ng in 663. Two years later, in 665, the final redoubt of the restoration forces, Imjon-s ŏ ng, fell, putting an end to the struggle to restore Paekche.
The Downfall of Kogury ŏ
Having destroyed Paekche in 660, the victorious allies of Tang and Silla continued their assault on Kogury ŏ for the next eight years. In 661 Tang armies, with the aid of Silla troops, encircled the Kogury ŏ capital of Pyongyang for several months. But they were defeated by Y ŏ n Kae-somun and had to withdraw in 662. Although Kogury ŏ survived this attack, its power to resist had been seriously weakened. The exhaustion caused by long years of continuous warfare with China together with the disaffection engendered by Y ŏ n Kae-somun’s dictatorial rule prompted Kogyry ŏ ’s ultimate downfall.
After the death of strongman Y ŏ n Kae-somun in 666, a power struggle erupted among his three sons and younger brother. The eldest son, Nam-saeng, who succeeded his father as mangriji, was driven out by his two younger brothers, Nam-g ŏ n and Nam-san. He fled to the old capital of Kungnae-s ŏ ng and voluntarily surrendered to Tang. Y ŏ n Kae-somun’s younger brother, Y ŏ n Ch ŏ ng-t’o, surrendered to Silla, and was joined by the people of 12 castles in the southern region. Taking advantage of this opportunity, Tang mounted a fresh invasion of Kogury ŏ in 667 that was coordinated with a Silla offensive. This time the Tang army, commanded by Li Ji, captured most of the fortresses in Manchuria and encircled Pyongyang. After holding out for another year, the weary kingdom
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